The wall that most visitors to China know as the Great Wall is in its essentials a Ming wall. The earlier walls of the Qin, Han, and Northern Wei dynasties were, for the most part, walls of rammed earth that have long since been reduced by weather and plough to low ridges in the landscape, barely visible to the untrained eye. The wall that climbs the ridges above Beijing in crenellated brick and stone is the wall that the Ming dynasty built between 1368 and 1644, when the Ming were at war with the Mongol peoples of the steppe and when the Ming needed a barrier that would hold against the cavalry raids of the steppe warriors. The Ming wall, at the end of the sixteenth century, was the most ambitious military construction project ever undertaken by any state. The Ming wall extended more than eight thousand eight hundred kilometres from the western desert of Gansu to the sea at Shanhaiguan, with branches, fortifications, and signal towers extending the total length to more than twenty-one thousand kilometres. The Ming wall was built with the labour of several hundred thousand workers, including soldiers, conscripted peasants, convicted criminals, and prisoners of war. The Ming wall was built with materials drawn from across northern China, including the bricks of the kilns of Shandong, the lime of the kilns of Hebei, and the timber of the forests of the Yanshan mountains. The Ming wall is the most impressive fortification of any age, and the Ming wall is the most iconic monument of the Chinese past.
The Predecessors: From Qin to Yuan
The idea of a long wall along the northern frontier of China is older than the Ming by more than fifteen centuries. The first long wall was built in the late third century BCE by the first Qin emperor, Qin Shi Huang, who, in 221 BCE, completed the unification of the Chinese empire and immediately began the construction of a long wall along the northern frontier to protect the new empire from the raids of the Xiongnu, the nomadic confederation of the steppe. The first emperor’s wall was constructed in the qin-style technique of rammed earth, with the earth laid in successive layers and compacted with wooden rammers. The first emperor’s wall was, by the standards of the time, an impressive construction, but the first emperor’s wall was not, by the standards of later centuries, a serious obstacle to a determined enemy. The first emperor’s wall was, in effect, a frontier post system rather than a continuous barrier, and the first emperor’s wall was supplemented by a chain of garrisons and beacon towers that provided warning of raids. The first emperor’s wall has, for the most part, been eroded into the landscape over the two millennia since its construction, and the first emperor’s wall survives only in a few short sections that have been identified and preserved.
The Han dynasty, which succeeded the Qin in 206 BCE, continued the construction of the long wall in a more substantial form. The Han wall was built in the qin-style technique of rammed earth, with the earth laid in successive layers and compacted with wooden rammers, and the Han wall was built to a height of about three to four metres and a width at the base of about three to four metres. The Han wall extended from the western desert of Gansu to the eastern coast of Liaoning, with branches and extensions reaching into the steppe and the desert. The Han wall was, by the standards of the time, an impressive construction, and the Han wall was one of the principal features of the Han empire’s northern frontier. The Han wall was, however, vulnerable to erosion, and the Han wall has, for the most part, been reduced to low ridges in the landscape, with only a few short sections surviving in identifiable form. The Han wall was also supplemented by a chain of garrisons and beacon towers that provided warning of raids, and the Han wall was, in effect, a more substantial version of the Qin system of frontier posts and beacon towers.
The Sui and Tang dynasties, which succeeded the Han in the late sixth and early seventh centuries, did not maintain the long wall, and the long wall of the Qin and Han dynasties was largely abandoned. The Sui and Tang dynasties were, in the seventh and eighth centuries, the dominant powers of the East Asian world, and the Sui and Tang dynasties were not, in general, threatened by the nomadic peoples of the steppe. The Sui and Tang dynasties, in fact, mounted major campaigns into the steppe against the Turkish and Uyghur peoples, and the Sui and Tang dynasties were able to project their power deep into Central Asia. The long wall was, in this period, largely irrelevant to the defence of the Chinese empire, and the long wall was, in many places, allowed to deteriorate. The long wall was, however, not entirely forgotten, and the long wall was, in the late Tang period, restored in a few short sections in response to the renewed threat of the Tibetan empire. The long wall was, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, restored in a more substantial form by the Northern Song dynasty, which built a long wall along the northern frontier to protect the Song from the Khitan and the Jurchen. The Northern Song wall was, however, not the wall that we know as the Great Wall, and the Northern Song wall was, in the late twelfth century, overrun by the Jurchen Jin dynasty.
The Mongol Yuan dynasty, which succeeded the Jin in the late thirteenth century, did not maintain a long wall, and the long wall of the Qin, Han, and Northern Song was, for the most part, abandoned during the Yuan period. The Mongol Yuan dynasty was, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the dominant power of the East Asian world, and the Mongol Yuan dynasty was not, in general, threatened by any other nomadic confederation. The long wall was, in this period, largely irrelevant to the defence of the Mongol empire, and the long wall was, in many places, allowed to deteriorate. The long wall was, however, not entirely forgotten, and the long wall was, in the late Yuan period, restored in a few short sections in response to the renewed threat of the Red Turban rebellion. The long wall was, in the late fourteenth century, overrun by the rebel forces of the future Ming dynasty, and the long wall passed, for a brief period, into the hands of the rebel forces. The long wall was, in the late fourteenth century, restored by the new Ming dynasty, in a form that was substantially more substantial than any previous version, and the long wall of the Ming dynasty is the wall that we know as the Great Wall.
The Ming Decision to Rebuild
The Ming dynasty was founded in 1368 by the former Buddhist monk Zhu Yuanzhang, who took the reign title Hongwu and who established the Ming capital at Nanjing. The Hongwu emperor was, from the beginning of his reign, deeply suspicious of the northern frontier, and the Hongwu emperor was deeply suspicious of the Mongol peoples who still controlled the steppe north of the Ming empire. The Hongwu emperor issued, in the early years of his reign, a series of orders for the construction of a long wall along the northern frontier, and the Hongwu emperor established a chain of garrisons and beacon towers that extended from the western desert of Gansu to the eastern coast of Liaoning. The Hongwu emperor’s wall was, however, a relatively modest construction, and the Hongwu emperor’s wall was, in the early years of the Ming dynasty, only a small fraction of the wall that was to be built in the later Ming period. The Hongwu emperor was, in the early years of his reign, more concerned with the consolidation of his power within China than with the construction of a long wall, and the Hongwu emperor was, in the early years of his reign, content to rely on the existing chain of garrisons and beacon towers for the defence of the northern frontier.
The Yongle emperor, who succeeded the Hongwu emperor in 1402, was a much more aggressive figure, and the Yongle emperor was much more interested in the construction of a substantial long wall. The Yongle emperor moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, the city that had been the capital of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and the Yongle emperor established his new capital in the city of Beijing. The Yongle emperor then began, in the early years of his reign, a major expansion of the long wall, and the Yongle emperor ordered the construction of a new long wall that would extend from the western desert of Gansu to the eastern coast of Liaoning, with a chain of garrisons and beacon towers along the entire length of the wall. The Yongle emperor’s wall was, however, still a relatively modest construction, and the Yongle emperor’s wall was, in the early years of the fifteenth century, only a small fraction of the wall that was to be built in the later Ming period. The Yongle emperor was, in the early years of his reign, more concerned with the projection of Ming power into the steppe and the desert, and the Yongle emperor was, in the early years of his reign, content to rely on the existing chain of garrisons and beacon towers for the defence of the northern frontier.
The decisive phase of the construction of the Great Wall was, however, the period from the late fifteenth century to the early seventeenth century, when the Ming dynasty was under increasing pressure from the Mongol peoples of the steppe. The pressure became acute in the mid-sixteenth century, when the Mongol leader Altan Khan began a series of major raids into the Ming heartland, and the pressure became acute in the 1550s, when Altan Khan marched his armies to the gates of Beijing. The Ming court, in response to this pressure, ordered a major expansion of the long wall, and the Ming court ordered the construction of a new long wall that would extend from the western desert of Gansu to the eastern coast of Liaoning, with a chain of garrisons and beacon towers along the entire length of the wall. The expansion of the long wall was, in the late sixteenth century, the most ambitious military construction project ever undertaken by any state, and the expansion of the long wall was, in the late sixteenth century, the largest single construction project in the world. The expansion of the long wall was carried out under the direction of the Ming general Qi Jiguang, who was appointed to the command of the northern frontier in 1568 and who held the command until his death in 1588. Qi Jiguang was one of the most capable military commanders of the Ming dynasty, and Qi Jiguang was one of the most capable military commanders of any age. Qi Jiguang directed the construction of the long wall in the form that we know it today, with brick facing, stone foundations, and a continuous line of watchtowers and signal towers.
The construction of the Great Wall was, in the late sixteenth century, a project of unprecedented scale. The wall was built with the labour of several hundred thousand workers, including soldiers, conscripted peasants, convicted criminals, and prisoners of war. The workers were organised into work gangs that were assigned to specific sections of the wall, and the workers were supervised by military officers who were responsible for the quality of the construction. The wall was built with materials drawn from across northern China, including the bricks of the kilns of Shandong, the lime of the kilns of Hebei, and the timber of the forests of the Yanshan mountains. The bricks were produced in kilns that were established along the route of the wall, and the bricks were transported to the wall by a system of roads that was built specifically for the purpose. The lime was produced in kilns that were established along the route of the wall, and the lime was transported to the wall by the same system of roads. The timber was cut from the forests of the Yanshan mountains, and the timber was transported to the wall by the same system of roads. The construction of the wall was a major logistical undertaking, and the construction of the wall was one of the most impressive feats of military engineering of any age.
The Engineering of the Wall
The Great Wall, as built in the late Ming period, is one of the most impressive feats of military engineering of any age. The wall was built to a height of about seven to nine metres, and the wall was built to a width of about five to six metres at the top and about six to seven metres at the base. The wall was built with a brick facing on the outside, a brick facing on the inside, and a core of rammed earth and rubble. The brick facing was laid in courses of lime mortar, and the brick facing was carefully tooled to produce a smooth, weather-resistant surface. The core of rammed earth and rubble was laid in successive layers, with each layer compacted by wooden rammers. The wall was built with a system of crenellations along the top, with merlons and embrasures at regular intervals, and the wall was built with a system of firing steps and walkways along the inside. The wall was built to withstand the assault of a determined enemy, and the wall was, in its heyday, an effective barrier against the cavalry raids of the steppe warriors.
The most distinctive feature of the Great Wall is the watchtower system that runs along the entire length of the wall. The watchtowers were built at intervals of about 200 to 300 metres along the wall, and the watchtowers were built to a height of about 10 to 12 metres. The watchtowers were built with a square or rectangular plan, and the watchtowers were built with multiple floors, including a ground floor for storage of supplies, a first floor for the garrison, and a top floor for observation and signalling. The watchtowers were built with firing platforms on the top floor, with crenellations around the firing platforms and with embrasures for archers and musketeers. The watchtowers were built to provide shelter for the garrison, to provide storage for supplies and ammunition, to provide observation of the surrounding terrain, and to provide a platform for signalling to the other watchtowers along the wall. The watchtowers were, in effect, the principal defensive feature of the wall, and the watchtowers were, in their heyday, the most impressive feature of the wall.
The signal system of the Great Wall was one of the most impressive communication systems of the pre-modern world. The signal system consisted of a chain of beacon towers that were built at intervals of about 5 to 10 kilometres along the wall, and the beacon towers were built to a height of about 15 to 20 metres. The beacon towers were built with a platform on the top, with a pile of dry wood and a supply of kindling and sulphur. The beacon towers were used to communicate the presence of an enemy raid, and the beacon towers were used to communicate the size of the raid. The signal system worked by a combination of smoke by day and fire by night, with the number of columns of smoke or the number of fires indicating the size of the raid. The signal system was, in its heyday, one of the fastest communication systems in the world, and the signal system was, in its heyday, the principal means by which the Ming court was informed of the approach of an enemy. The signal system was, in effect, the long-distance communication system of the Ming empire, and the signal system was, in its heyday, the most important communication system in the world.
The strategic passes of the Great Wall were among the most heavily fortified sections of the wall, and the strategic passes were the principal defensive positions of the wall. The most famous of the strategic passes is Shanhaiguan, the pass where the wall meets the sea. Shanhaiguan is a small town on the coast of the Bohai Sea, and Shanhaiguan is the point at which the wall of the Ming dynasty meets the sea. Shanhaiguan is, in a sense, the eastern terminus of the Great Wall, and Shanhaiguan is, in a real sense, one of the most famous strategic positions in the world. Shanhaiguan was, in the late sixteenth century, the principal defensive position on the eastern section of the wall, and Shanhaiguan was, in the late sixteenth century, the principal military headquarters of the eastern section of the wall. The most famous moment in the history of Shanhaiguan was in 1644, when the general Wu Sangui opened the gates of Shanhaiguan to the Manchu forces and allowed the Manchu forces to enter the Chinese heartland. The opening of the gates of Shanhaiguan was, in effect, the end of the Ming dynasty, and the opening of the gates of Shanhaiguan was, in effect, the beginning of the Qing dynasty.
The other principal strategic passes of the Great Wall are Juyong Pass, in the mountains northwest of Beijing; Niangzi Pass, in the mountains of Shanxi; and Yanmen Pass, also in the mountains of Shanxi. The four strategic passes were, in the late Ming period, the most heavily defended positions on the wall, and the four strategic passes were, in the late Ming period, the principal defensive positions of the wall. The four strategic passes were, in the late Ming period, the most heavily garrisoned positions on the wall, and the four strategic passes were, in the late Ming period, the principal military headquarters of the wall. The four strategic passes were, in the late Ming period, the most heavily fortified positions on the wall, and the four strategic passes were, in the late Ming period, the principal defensive positions of the wall. The four strategic passes are, in the modern period, the principal tourist destinations of the wall, and the four strategic passes are, in the modern period, the principal monuments of the wall.
The Wall as a Cultural and Symbolic Object
The Great Wall has been, since the late Ming period, one of the most important cultural objects of China, and the Great Wall has been, since the late Ming period, one of the most important symbols of the Chinese nation. The wall was, in the late Ming period, the subject of a substantial body of Chinese poetry, with the most famous of the poems being the poem by the Ming poet Wang Shizhen, who visited the wall in the late sixteenth century and who wrote a poem celebrating the wall as the principal monument of the Ming dynasty. The wall was, in the late Ming period, the subject of a substantial body of Chinese painting, with the most famous of the paintings being the painting by the Ming painter Qiu Ying, who painted a famous scroll depicting the wall as it appeared in the late sixteenth century. The wall was, in the late Ming period, the subject of a substantial body of Chinese literature, with the most famous of the works being the novel The Romance of the Great Wall, which was written in the late Ming period and which celebrated the wall as the principal monument of the Ming dynasty. The wall was, in the late Ming period, the most important cultural object of China, and the wall was, in the late Ming period, the most important symbol of the Chinese nation.
The wall fell to the Manchu Qing dynasty in 1644, when the general Wu Sangui opened the gates of Shanhaiguan to the Manchu forces. The wall was, after the fall of the Ming dynasty, no longer the principal defensive feature of the Chinese empire, and the wall was, after the fall of the Ming dynasty, allowed to deteriorate. The wall was, in the early Qing period, garrisoned by Qing troops, and the wall was, in the early Qing period, maintained by the Qing state. The wall was, however, no longer the principal defensive feature of the Qing empire, and the wall was, in the early Qing period, supplemented by a chain of forts and signal towers that extended into the steppe and the desert. The wall was, in the late Qing period, allowed to deteriorate further, and the wall was, in the late Qing period, no longer maintained by the Qing state. The wall was, in the late Qing period, a relic of the past, and the wall was, in the late Qing period, a monument to a vanished empire.
The wall was, in the late Qing and early Republican period, the subject of a substantial body of foreign travel writing, with the most famous of the accounts being the account by the British writer William Lindesay, who visited the wall in the late nineteenth century and who wrote a substantial account of the wall as a monument of the Chinese past. The wall was, in the late Qing and early Republican period, the subject of a substantial body of foreign photography, with the most famous of the photographs being the photographs by the American photographer Herbert Ponting, who visited the wall in the early twentieth century and who took a substantial series of photographs of the wall. The wall was, in the late Qing and early Republican period, the subject of a substantial body of foreign scholarship, with the most famous of the works being the work by the British archaeologist Aurel Stein, who visited the wall in the early twentieth century and who wrote a substantial account of the wall as a monument of the Chinese past. The wall was, in the late Qing and early Republican period, one of the most famous monuments of the Chinese past, and the wall was, in the late Qing and early Republican period, one of the most famous monuments of the world.
The wall was, in the modern period, the subject of a substantial programme of restoration and conservation, with the most important of the restoration projects being the restoration of the Badaling section in 1957, the restoration of the Mutianyu section in 1969, the restoration of the Juyong Pass section in 1971, the restoration of the Gubeikou section in 1978, and the restoration of the Jiankou section in the 2000s. The wall was, in the modern period, the subject of a substantial programme of public access, with the most important of the public access projects being the opening of the Badaling section to tourists in 1957, the opening of the Mutianyu section to tourists in 1969, the opening of the Juyong Pass section to tourists in 1971, and the opening of the Gubeikou section to tourists in 1978. The wall was, in the modern period, the subject of a substantial programme of international recognition, with the most important of the international recognition projects being the inscription of the wall on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1987. The wall was, in the modern period, the most famous monument of the Chinese past, and the wall was, in the modern period, the most famous monument of the world.
The Wall Today
The Great Wall is, at the time of writing, the most visited cultural heritage site in China, and the Great Wall is one of the most visited cultural heritage sites in the world. The wall attracts more than ten million visitors per year, with the principal concentrations of visitors at the Badaling section (which receives more than ten million visitors per year), the Mutianyu section (which receives more than five million visitors per year), and the Juyong Pass section (which receives more than three million visitors per year). The wall is, in a sense, the most popular tourist destination in China, and the wall is, in a real sense, the most popular cultural heritage site in China. The wall is, in the modern period, the principal symbol of the Chinese past, and the wall is, in the modern period, the principal symbol of the Chinese nation. The wall is, in the modern period, the principal monument of the Chinese state, and the wall is, in the modern period, the principal monument of the Chinese past.
The wall is, however, also the subject of substantial contemporary concerns. The principal contemporary concerns about the wall are the concerns about its conservation, and the principal contemporary concerns about the conservation of the wall are the concerns about the gradual erosion of the wall in the sections that have not been restored, the concerns about the over-tourism in the sections that have been restored, and the concerns about the impact of climate change on the brick and stone of the wall. The concerns about the gradual erosion of the wall are the most serious of the contemporary concerns, and the concerns about the gradual erosion of the wall are the most serious of the conservation problems of the wall. The wall is, in the sections that have not been restored, gradually being eroded by weather and by the activities of farmers and developers, and the wall is, in the sections that have been restored, gradually being eroded by the wear of the millions of visitors who come to the wall each year. The concerns about the over-tourism in the sections that have been restored are also serious, and the concerns about the over-tourism in the sections that have been restored are also the subject of substantial concern in the Chinese cultural heritage community. The concerns about the impact of climate change on the wall are the most recent of the contemporary concerns, and the concerns about the impact of climate change on the wall are the most recent of the conservation problems of the wall.
The wall is, despite these contemporary concerns, one of the most important cultural heritage sites in the world, and the wall is, despite these contemporary concerns, one of the most important monuments of the Chinese past. The wall is, in a real sense, the most ambitious and the most impressive of the military constructions of any age, and the wall is, in a real sense, the most iconic of the monuments of the Chinese past. The wall is, in a real sense, the most ambitious and the most impressive of the engineering projects of any age, and the wall is, in a real sense, the most iconic of the engineering projects of the Chinese past. The wall is, in a real sense, the most ambitious and the most impressive of the cultural heritage sites of any age, and the wall is, in a real sense, the most iconic of the cultural heritage sites of the Chinese past. The wall is, in a real sense, the most ambitious and the most impressive of the monuments of the world, and the wall is, in a real sense, the most iconic of the monuments of the world. The wall is, in a real sense, one of the great monuments of the long history of human civilisation, and the wall is, in a real sense, one of the great monuments of the long history of the Chinese past.
The Great Wall has also been, in the years since the founding of the People’s Republic, a central image in the construction of modern Chinese national identity. The wall has appeared on Chinese currency, in Chinese school textbooks, in Chinese popular songs, and in Chinese feature films. The wall has been the venue for mass political rallies and for international sporting events. The wall has been the destination for school excursions and for state visits by foreign leaders. The wall has been the site for televised celebrations of national holidays and for the broadcasting of major sporting events. The wall has, in short, become one of the principal visual symbols of modern China, and the wall has become one of the principal visual symbols of the long history of China. The wall has, in this sense, become a symbol of the continuity of the Chinese past and the Chinese present, and the wall has become a symbol of the unity of the Chinese nation. The wall has, in this sense, become a symbol of the Chinese people, and the wall has become a symbol of the Chinese state. The wall is, in a real sense, the most iconic of the monuments of the Chinese past, and the wall is, in a real sense, the most iconic of the monuments of the Chinese present. The wall is, in a real sense, the most iconic of the monuments of the Chinese future, and the wall is, in a real sense, the most iconic of the monuments of the Chinese nation.
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