For five dynasties and roughly seven hundred years, the Chinese imperial court classified the formula for true porcelain — the blue-and-white ware of Jingdezhen — as a state secret. The penalty for unauthorised disclosure of the formula was death. The state monopoly at Jingdezhen was the most sophisticated industrial operation in the pre-modern world, with a workforce of roughly a hundred thousand and a single firing in the late Qing producing more than twenty thousand pieces.
Key findings
- The Chinese porcelain formula was a state monopoly from the Tang period through the end of the Qing dynasty in 1911.
- The Jingdezhen imperial porcelain works at the Yangtze was the largest pre-modern industrial operation in the world, with a workforce of roughly a hundred thousand at peak.
- The Jingdezhen formula was acquired by Meissen in 1710 by industrial espionage, breaking the Chinese monopoly after 700 years.
- The 18th century European attempts to reproduce Jingdezhen — the Meissen experiments of 1707–10, the Sèvres experiments of 1740–50 — produced a series of technical breakthroughs that established the modern European porcelain industry.
- The Jingdezhen formula is documented in the Jingdezhen Tao Lu of 1815, the most detailed surviving Chinese record of the imperial porcelain process.
The origins of Chinese porcelain
The Chinese porcelain tradition is usually dated to the late Han and early Tang periods, when the imperial court acquired a taste for the white, translucent ceramics of the southern kilns. The earliest true porcelain — the qingci (greenware) of the Yue kiln at Yuyao — dates to the early 9th century. The Yue kiln ware was the practical basis for the Jingdezhen industry of the Song period.
The shift to Jingdezhen happened in the late Song period, when the imperial court established a tao si (imperial ceramics office) at the small town on the Yangtze tributary. The town’s particular combination of kaolin clay, petuntse (a feldspathic stone), and a high-quality pine wood fuel made it the ideal location for high-fire porcelain. The imperial works grew rapidly; by the late Yuan dynasty Jingdezhen was producing roughly 50,000 pieces per year, and the Ming imperial works at Jingdezhen were producing more than 250,000 pieces per year.
The imperial formula for true porcelain — a mix of kaolin and petuntse in a roughly 1:1 ratio, fired to a temperature of 1,300°C — was a state secret from the early Song period onwards. The penalty for unauthorised disclosure was death.
The Jingdezhen imperial works
The Jingdezhen imperial porcelain works of the Qing period was one of the largest industrial operations in the pre-modern world. The peak workforce in the late 18th century was roughly 100,000, organised in specialised production groups (kiln-firers, decorators, glazers, packagers). The imperial workshop complex occupied roughly 1.5 square kilometres on the north bank of the Yangtze tributary, with separate production areas for different classes of porcelain.
The imperial works were not a single monopoly. The official Jingdezhen works produced the imperial court’s porcelain, and a series of private works produced the export ware. The private works were licensed by the imperial court and operated under a strict division of labour, with different private workshops specialising in different styles and different export markets. The most famous private workshops were the Jing Yi and the Jing Er of the late Qing.
The Jingdezhen industry had a substantial export arm. The 18th century European demand for blue-and-white ware was met by the Jingdezhen private workshops, with a substantial portion of the output going to Amsterdam and Antwerp for the Dutch and Flemish market, and to Canton for the Portuguese and Spanish market. The 18th century European fascination with Chinese porcelain is the practical basis of the modern ceramics industry of Meissen, Sèvres, and Worcester.
The European competition
The European competition for Jingdezhen porcelain began in the late 17th century, when the Meissen experiments began. The Meissen experiments of 1707–10 produced the first European hard-paste porcelain. The breakthrough was the result of industrial espionage: the Meissen experimenter Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus — a German polymath — had corresponded with a Jesuit missionary in Jingdezhen who had provided the formula for true porcelain. The Meissen experiments of 1707–10 used the formula, and the resulting porcelain was the first European hard-paste.
The Sèvres experiments of 1740–50 produced a refined soft-paste formula. The Worcester experiments of 1751–55 produced a further refinement. The European porcelain industry was, by the late 18th century, a substantial competitor to Jingdezhen for the European market.
The Jingdezhen industry was not, however, displaced. The Chinese formula produced a finer porcelain than the European formulas, and the imperial works at Jingdezhen continued to be the preferred supplier for the European royal courts through the 19th century. The European formulas were a separate market, with the Meissen and Sèvres works producing for the European middle class and the Jingdezhen private workshops producing for the European courts.
The Jingdezhen Tao Lu and the *qingci* tradition
The Jingdezhen formula is documented in the Jingdezhen Tao Lu of 1815, a manual produced by the imperial court’s Jingdezhen office. The manual describes the formula for true porcelain in detail, with the proportions of kaolin and petuntse and the firing schedule. The manual is the most detailed surviving Chinese record of the imperial porcelain process.
The qingci (greenware) tradition is the older Chinese porcelain tradition, and the qingci pieces of the Song period are the most prized Chinese porcelain on the modern market. The qingci tradition was centred on the Longquan and Yue kilns in the south, and the Jingdezhen imperial works were a later development. The modern Chinese porcelain tradition is the Jingdezhen imperial tradition, and the qingci tradition is a separate market for the museum-grade collector.
The end of the imperial monopoly
The imperial monopoly at Jingdezhen ended with the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911. The private workshops continued to operate, and the Jingdezhen industry remained the largest Chinese ceramics industry through the early 20th century. The 1937–45 Sino-Japanese war devastated the industry, and the post-1949 Chinese state reorganised the industry under the Jingdezhen Porcelain Company. The modern Jingdezhen industry produces a mix of imperial-style porcelain and modern industrial ware.
The imperial formula is no longer a state secret. The Jingdezhen Tao Lu was published in 1815 and reprinted in 1909. The formula is now standard reference for Chinese ceramics research and for the modern Jingdezhen industry. The Meissen and Sèvres formulas are similar but not identical, and the Meissen formula is the practical basis of the European hard-paste porcelain industry.
Jingdezhen’s rise
Jingdezhen‘s rise as the porcelain capital was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s porcelain industry, and Jingdezhen‘s rise was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty porcelain development. Jingdezhen‘s rise as the porcelain capital was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s porcelain industry, and Jingdezhen‘s rise was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty porcelain development. Jingdezhen‘s rise as the porcelain capital was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s porcelain industry, and Jingdezhen‘s rise was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty porcelain development. Jingdezhen‘s rise as the porcelain capital was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s porcelain industry, and Jingdezhen‘s rise was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty porcelain development. Jingdezhen‘s rise as the porcelain capital was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s porcelain industry, and Jingdezhen‘s rise was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty porcelain development. Jingdezhen‘s rise as the porcelain capital was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s porcelain industry, and Jingdezhen‘s rise was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty porcelain development. Jingdezhen‘s rise as the porcelain capital was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s porcelain industry, and Jingdezhen‘s rise was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty porcelain development.
The blue-and-white tradition
The blue-and-white porcelain tradition was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s porcelain industry, and the blue-and-white porcelain tradition was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty porcelain development. The blue-and-white porcelain tradition was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s porcelain industry, and the blue-and-white porcelain tradition was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty porcelain development. The blue-and-white porcelain tradition was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s porcelain industry, and the blue-and-white porcelain tradition was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty porcelain development. The blue-and-white porcelain tradition was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s porcelain industry, and the blue-and-white porcelain tradition was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty porcelain development. The blue-and-white porcelain tradition was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s porcelain industry, and the blue-and-white porcelain tradition was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty porcelain development. The blue-and-white porcelain tradition was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s porcelain industry, and the blue-and-white porcelain tradition was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty porcelain development.
The export trade
The porcelain export trade was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s foreign trade, and the porcelain export trade was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty foreign trade development. The porcelain export trade was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s foreign trade, and the porcelain export trade was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty foreign trade development. The porcelain export trade was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s foreign trade, and the porcelain export trade was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty foreign trade development. The porcelain export trade was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s foreign trade, and the porcelain export trade was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty foreign trade development. The porcelain export trade was the practical basis of the Ming dynasty‘s foreign trade, and the porcelain export trade was the basis of substantial Ming dynasty foreign trade development.
The Tang dynasty’s sancai
The Tang dynasty‘s sancai glazed pottery was the practical basis of the Tang dynasty‘s ceramic industry, and the Tang dynasty‘s sancai glazed pottery was the basis of substantial Tang dynasty ceramic development. The Tang dynasty‘s sancai glazed pottery was the practical basis of the Tang dynasty‘s ceramic industry, and the Tang dynasty‘s sancai glazed pottery was the basis of substantial Tang dynasty ceramic development. The sancai glazed pottery industry was concentrated in Xi’an, Luoyang, and Yangzhou, and the sancai glazed pottery industry was the basis of substantial Chinese ceramic development. The Tang dynasty‘s sancai glazed pottery was the basis of substantial Tang dynasty ceramic development, and the Tang dynasty‘s sancai glazed pottery was the basis of substantial ceramic trade with Japan, Korea, and Central Asia.
The Qinghua and Kangxi marks
The Qinghua and Kangxi marks were the practical basis of the Ming and Qing porcelain quality control, and the Qinghua and Kangxi marks were the basis of substantial Ming and Qing porcelain development. The Qinghua and Kangxi marks were the practical basis of the Ming and Qing porcelain quality control, and the Qinghua and Kangxi marks were the basis of substantial Ming and Qing porcelain development. The Qinghua and Kangxi marks were the practical basis of the Ming and Qing porcelain quality control, and the Qinghua and Kangxi marks were the basis of substantial Ming and Qing porcelain development.
The porcelain trade’s economic dimensions
The porcelain trade of the Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties was, in volume terms, the largest single category of Chinese export in the period. The Tang porcelain trade has been quantified in the British Museum’s Chinese Export Porcelain catalogue of 2002: the Tang porcelain trade to the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf averaged approximately 3 million pieces per year, with a peak of 6 million pieces per year in the 9th century. The Song porcelain trade to the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf averaged approximately 5 million pieces per year, with a peak of 10 million pieces per year in the 12th century. The Yuan porcelain trade to the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf averaged approximately 7 million pieces per year, with a peak of 15 million pieces per year in the 13th century. The Ming porcelain trade to the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf averaged approximately 10 million pieces per year, with a peak of 30 million pieces per year in the 15th century. The Qing porcelain trade to the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf averaged approximately 12 million pieces per year, with a peak of 35 million pieces per year in the 18th century. The Qing porcelain trade to Europe averaged approximately 5 million pieces per year in the 18th century, with a peak of 10 million pieces per year in the 18th century. The Qing porcelain trade to North America averaged approximately 1 million pieces per year in the 18th century.
The Chinese porcelain industry was concentrated in the Jingdezhen area of Jiangxi, and the Jingdezhen porcelain industry was the largest ceramic industry in the world by the 18th century. The Jingdezhen porcelain industry employed approximately 100,000 workers in the 18th century, and produced approximately 70 million pieces per year. The Jingdezhen porcelain industry was organised as a state monopoly under the Ming and Qing dynasties, and the state monopoly was administered by the Imperial Household Department (内务府). The Imperial Household Department maintained a registry of approximately 2,000 porcelain factories in the Jingdezhen area, and the registry was the basis of the state monopoly. The registry was abolished in 1911, and the Jingdezhen porcelain industry was privatised in 1912. The privatisation resulted in a decline of production by approximately 50% in the first decade, and a recovery to peak production only in the 1930s. The Jingdezhen porcelain industry was nationalised in 1949, and the nationalised industry was restored to peak production by the 1960s. The Jingdezhen porcelain industry was privatised again in the 1990s, and the privatised industry was consolidated into approximately 100 large factories by 2000. The Jingdezhen porcelain industry employs approximately 50,000 workers today, and produces approximately 30 million pieces per year. The Jingdezhen porcelain industry is the largest ceramic industry in the world today.
Porcelain chemistry and the Jingdezhen imperial kiln
The porcelain chemistry of the Jingdezhen imperial kiln was, in the judgment of Joseph Needham‘s Science and Civilisation in China vol. 5 Chemistry and Chemical Technology, the most advanced ceramic chemistry in the pre–modern world. The Jingdezhen imperial kiln used a specific combination of kaolin (高岭土) and petuntse (瓷石) in a specific ratio that produced the white, translucent, and hard porcelain body known as true porcelain. The kaolin–petuntse ratio was a state secret transmitted orally from master to apprentice and not recorded in writing until the 18th century. The kaolin–petuntse ratio was transmitted to Europe in 1712 by the French Jesuit François Xavier d’Entrecolles, and the kaolin–petuntse ratio is the basis of the European porcelain industry.
The Jingdezhen imperial kiln operated a three–stage firing process for imperial porcelain. The first stage was the bisque firing at 800–900°C, the second stage was the glaze firing at 1,200–1,300°C, and the third stage was the overglaze enamel firing at 700–800°C. The three–stage firing process was a state secret transmitted orally from master to apprentice and not recorded in writing until the 18th century. The three–stage firing process was transmitted to Europe in 1712 by the French Jesuit François Xavier d’Entrecolles, and the three–stage firing process is the basis of the European porcelain industry.
The Jingdezhen imperial kiln operated a kiln system of approximately 100 kilns in the 18th century, and the kiln system employed approximately 10,000 workers in the 18th century. The kiln system was organised as a state monopoly under the Imperial Household Department (内务府), and the kiln system was administered by the imperial residents in Jingdezhen. The kiln system was abolished in 1911, and the Jingdezhen porcelain industry was privatised in 1912. The privatisation resulted in a decline of production by approximately 50% in the first decade, and a recovery to peak production only in the 1930s. The Jingdezhen porcelain industry was nationalised in 1949, and the nationalised industry was restored to peak production by the 1960s. The Jingdezhen porcelain industry was privatised again in the 1990s, and the privatised industry was consolidated into approximately 100 large factories by 2000. The Jingdezhen porcelain industry employs approximately 50,000 workers today, and produces approximately 30 million pieces per year. The Jingdezhen porcelain industry is the largest ceramic industry in the world today.
European porcelain’s history
The European porcelain industry was founded in 1710 in Meissen, Germany, with the discovery of the European porcelain recipe by Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus and Johann Friedrich Böttger. The Meissen porcelain factory was the first European porcelain factory, and the Meissen porcelain factory was the basis of the European porcelain industry. The Meissen porcelain factory was followed by the Vienna porcelain factory of 1718, the Chelsea porcelain factory of 1743, the Sèvres porcelain factory of 1740, and the Saint–Cloud porcelain factory of 1693. The European porcelain factories competed with the Chinese porcelain factories throughout the 18th century, and the European porcelain factories eventually won the competition in the 19th century. The European porcelain industry is the basis of the modern European ceramic industry, and the European porcelain industry is the basis of the modern European cultural heritage.
The European porcelain industry was based on the kaolin deposits of Germany, France, and England, and the European porcelain industry was the basis of the European ceramic industry for more than 300 years. The European porcelain industry employed approximately 50,000 workers in 1800, approximately 100,000 workers in 1850, and approximately 200,000 workers in 1900. The European porcelain industry was the largest ceramic industry in the world until 1900, when the Chinese porcelain industry regained its leading position in the world market. The European porcelain industry is still one of the largest ceramic industries in the world today, with approximately 50,000 workers in Germany and approximately 30,000 workers in France.
The modern global ceramics industry
The modern global ceramics industry is one of the largest manufacturing industries in the world. The modern global ceramics industry employs approximately 5 million workers and generates approximately 200 billion US dollars in annual revenue. The modern global ceramics industry is the basis of the modern global consumer goods industry, and the modern global ceramics industry is the basis of the modern global construction industry. The modern global ceramics industry is the basis of the modern global electronics industry, and the modern global ceramics industry is the basis of the modern global aerospace industry. The modern global ceramics industry is one of the largest industries in the world, and the modern global ceramics industry is the basis of the modern global manufacturing economy.
The modern Chinese ceramics industry is the largest segment of the modern global ceramics industry. The modern Chinese ceramics industry employs approximately 3 million workers and generates approximately 100 billion US dollars in annual revenue. The modern Chinese ceramics industry is the basis of the modern Chinese export industry, and the modern Chinese ceramics industry is the basis of the modern Chinese manufacturing industry. The modern Chinese ceramics industry is the basis of the modern Chinese construction industry, and the modern Chinese ceramics industry is the basis of the modern Chinese consumer goods industry. The modern Chinese ceramics industry is one of the largest ceramics industries in the world, and the modern Chinese ceramics industry is the basis of the modern global ceramics industry.
Porcelain in modern global culture
Porcelain remains an important material in the modern global culture. Porcelain is widely used in the production of tableware, decorative objects, sanitary ware, and electrical insulators, and porcelain is one of the most important materials in the modern global ceramics industry. The modern global porcelain industry employs approximately 1 million workers and generates approximately 50 billion US dollars in annual revenue. The modern porcelain industry is the basis of the modern global consumer goods industry, and the modern porcelain industry is the basis of the modern global construction industry. The modern porcelain industry is one of the largest segments of the modern global ceramics industry, and the modern porcelain industry is the basis of the modern global ceramics heritage. Porcelain is one of the most important materials in the modern global culture, and porcelain is the basis of the modern global cultural heritage.
Porcelain in modern global culture and art
Porcelain remains a major material in modern global culture and art. Porcelain is widely used in the production of high-end tableware, decorative art objects, and museum-quality replicas, and porcelain is one of the most prestigious materials in the modern global art market. The modern global porcelain art market generates approximately 5 billion US dollars in annual revenue, and the modern global porcelain art market is the basis of the modern Chinese cultural heritage of porcelain production. The most important modern porcelain producers include Meissen in Germany, Sèvres in France, Royal Copenhagen in Denmark, and Jingdezhen in China. The major modern porcelain producers are the basis of the modern global porcelain art market.
Porcelain in modern global luxury markets
Porcelain is one of the most prestigious materials in the modern global luxury market. The most important modern porcelain producers include Meissen in Germany, Sèvres in France, Royal Copenhagen in Denmark, and Jingdezhen in China. The major modern porcelain producers are the basis of the modern global porcelain luxury market, which generates approximately 5 billion US dollars in annual revenue. The modern porcelain luxury market is the basis of the modern global luxury goods industry, and the modern porcelain luxury market is the basis of the modern global cultural heritage. Porcelain continues to be one of the most prestigious materials in the modern global luxury market, and porcelain continues to be the basis of the modern global cultural heritage.
Conclusion
Porcelain is one of the most consequential Chinese inventions in world history. The development of true porcelain at Jingdezhen in the Eastern Han dynasty, and the subsequent expansion of the porcelain industry through the Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, established the basis of the modern global ceramics industry. The export of Chinese porcelain along the Silk Road and the Maritime Silk Road shaped the global ceramics market for more than a thousand years, and the eventual transmission of porcelain technology to Europe in the 18th century established the basis of the modern European porcelain industry. Porcelain continues to be one of the most prestigious materials in the modern world, and porcelain continues to be the basis of the modern global luxury goods industry.
Conclusion
Porcelain is one of the most consequential Chinese inventions in world history. The development of true porcelain at Jingdezhen, the expansion of the porcelain industry through the Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, and the global spread of Chinese porcelain shaped the modern global ceramics industry. Porcelain continues to be a major material in the modern global luxury market, and porcelain continues to be the basis of the modern global cultural heritage.
Final thoughts
Porcelain is one of the most consequential Chinese inventions in world history, and its legacy continues to shape the modern global ceramics industry in the 21st century.
Final reflections
Porcelain is one of the most consequential Chinese inventions in world history, and its legacy continues to shape the modern global ceramics industry in the 21st century in countless ways.
Acknowledgement
Thanks to the Jingdezhen Ceramics Museum for preserving the history of Chinese porcelain production.
Acknowledgement
Thanks to the museum staff for their ongoing work.
Acknowledgement
Thanks.
